Bordens, K. S. and B. B. Abbott (1991). Research Design and Methods,. Mountain View, CA, Mayfield Publishing Company.

Scientific Explanations are:

* empirical (based on objective and systematic observation under controlled conditions). Observed events must be subject to verification by others

* rational (follow rules of logic and consistent with known facts)

* testable (verifiable through direct observation or lead to specific predictions about what should occur. It's testable if confidence in the explanation could be undermined by a failutre to observe the predicted outcome).

* parsimonious (prefer the least complex explanation, that requires the fewest assumptions)

* general (prefer ones with broad explanatory powers)

* tentative (entertain possibility that explanation is faulty)

* rigorously evaluated (constantly evaluated for consistency, parsimony, and generality).

Scientific explanations are contrasted with belief-based, post-hoc, faulty inferences, circular explanations, tautology (where the observed behavior is explained by a concept, but the behavior itself is used as proof of the existence of the explanatory concept).

Scientific Method

1. Observe a phenomenon

2. Formulate Tentative Explanations (hypothesis)

3. Further observing and experimenting

4. Refining and testing explanations

Research Process

1. Idea

2. Develop idea into testable hypothesis

3. Choose appropriate research design

4. Choose subject population

5. Conduct Study

6. Analyze data

7. Report results

Deductive: derive a hypothesis from general ideas

Inductive: derive a general hypothesis from specific ideas

Theory: a set of assumptions about the causes of a phenomenon and rules that specify how the causes act.

Independent variable: chosen and set by experimenter

Dependent variable: result you record

Experimental approach:

Strength:

* idenfity and describe causal relationships

Limitation:

* can't use if can't manipulate hypothesized causal variables

* tight control of variables reduces generality of findings

Internal Validity: test what intended to test (no confounding variables)

External validity: apply to broad range of subjects and situations

Reliability: produce similar results when measurements made under identical conditions

Accuracy: results agree with a known standard

Chapter 15: Theory

According to Martin (1985) a theory is a partially verified statement of a scientific relationship that cannot be directly observed.

A model refers to a specific implementation of a more general theoretical view.

Some types of theories are:

* descriptive theories (describe how certain variables are related)

* analogical theories (explain a relationship through an analogy)

* fundamental theories (prropose a new structure that directly relates variables and constraints of the system

Characteristics of a Good Theory

* ability to account for the data

* explanatory relevance (offer good grounds for belief)

* testability (capable of failing an empirical test)

* prediction of novel events

* parsimony