Fisher, C. D. (1986). "Organizational Socialization: An Integrative View." Research in Personnel and Human Resources Management, 4: 101-145.

There is a difference between occupational socialization and organizational socialization p. 102

There are only 15 good empirical studies and a similar number of ethnographic studies on socialization.

Some of the main issues are as follows:

Design

Some do one-shot cross-sectional research with retrospective data (Feldman). Some try to get correlations of responses (which have the same variance). They don't study worst-case socialization where people have left the company.

Studies where 1st, 2nd, and so on years in company are compared are suspect because people that dropped out are not counted (often done with student groups). Others compare different groups of employees (years of schooling, MS vs PHD, etc.). These are confounded by different work experiences in the groups or pre-existing value differences.

Samples

Most studies only examine one occupational group, organization, or job title at a time. p. 104 Occupational and organizational socialization is also confounded.

Data Collection Methods

Some do questionnaires and interviews, ethnographers do observations. Some hybrid studies (open-ended interviews) or even better composite (participant observation and quantitative stuff).

Content of Socialization

Socialization is primariliy a learning and change process for the newcomer. This includes:

* organizational values, goals, culture, etc.

* work group values, norms and friendships

* how to do the job, needed skills and knowledge

* personal change relating to identity, self-image, and motive structure

Newcomers often have to be convinced that they need to learn. They also have to decide what to learn. They have to decide whom to learn from. p. 106

Learning About the Organization

One must learn about rules, reporting relationships, benefits, pay systems, etc. Some of it is not in words.

Learning to Function in the Work Group

One must learn names, job responsibilities, and how to get along with coworkers and superiors. They must learn norms and become familiar with the culture. Learning to deal with political behavior, resistance to change, and imcompetence of fellow employees was particularily frustrating to these new graduates as they encountered organizational reality.

Learning to Do the Job

One must learn cognitive content (jargon, rules, facts, procedures) , maybe speed accuracy, strength. People tend to develop scripts to handle these situations.

Personal Learning

Sometimes there are latent or emergent expectations.

Content-Related Variables

Order of Learning

Sometimes organizations begin to adjust the newcomers values first, and later give them the technical secrets. Others start by building technical knowledge and skills and allow values to change later. p. 108 Teaching skills first often leads to higher commitment.

Attitudes or Behavior

Legitimacy

Socilization most occurs with things around work, less so with private affairs. p. 109

Outcomes

Rarely investigated. Most have not investigated changes in knowledge, changes in behavior, and changes in attitudes, beliefs, and personal values.

Theoreticians seem to look at creative individualism (Schein, 1968) or role innovation (Van Maanen & Schein, 1979). Most empiricists look at things like job satisfaction, motivation , invovement, etc. Some look at commitment, or reduce role ambiguity. Another measure might be the acceptance from other insiders.

Effects of Socialization

Complete conformity might reduce creativity. Graen (1976) notes that individuals enact organizational roles based on what they think they are supposed to do, what they prefer to do, and what they know how to do. p. 111 Socialization may produce less attitundal and behavioral variance or more variance.

Process of Socialization

Stage Models

Stage One

Often called "anticipatory socialization" is the "degree to which an individual is prepared-prior to entry- to occupy organizational positions". This includes occupational choise, selection, and any preentry socialization or assimilation.

Stage Two

Reffered to as "accomodation" (Feldman) "encounter" (Porter, Lawler & Hackman, 1975) initial confrontation (Graen, 1976). "adjustment" (Brief, et. al 1979). Its the most crucial for effective socialization. Expectations are met or not met, ambiquity and conflict are encountered, self and organizational evaluations of performance are compared.

They give up their view from their old role and adopt a new role. They become "unfrozen" (Schein)

Stage Three

Known as "role management" (Feldman) "Change and acquisition" (Porter) "Mutual acceptance" (Schein) "adaptation" (Louis) "metamorphsis" (Van Maanen, 1976). They learn to handle conflicts within and external to the organization, seeting into new attitudes, values congruent with the organization.

Research on Stage Models

Must theorizing, few attempts to test it.

Research Supporting Stage Models

Greans 1983 work showed that clerical workers that learning new tasks, becoming accepted, and asking questions decreased over time, but dealing with conflict increased over time. Feldman found that people who passed through his three stages had more influence and job satisfaction. Toffler's work showed some changes over time in predictor variables. pl 118

Research Not Supporting Stage Models

Most research hasn't found major changes between stages, but a smooth steady growth in attitudes and other factors.

Conclusions and Suggestions for Research

Support for Stage models is mixed. There is not evidence for distinct stages for everybody. Also newcomers get rising expectations as they progress through their work.

Anticipatory Socialization

Many studies focus on expectations or beliefs on what work will be like. This includes things like working hours, supervision, type of work, promotion availability, etc. Other focus on values, orienations, or on the occupation in particular.

Most of the socializtion is learning of expectations.

Selection

Groups tend to select people that will be more easily socialized. After accepting the offer things like a new self-identify and commitment begin for form. p. 121

Sources of Information

Many researchers have found that high expectations often result in disappointment and higher turnover (Vroom and Deci, 1971). . Some may inflate their expectations due to post-decision dissonance. They get their pre-information from friends, family, and schools as well as the organization.

Thus the "realistic job preview" has been given emphasis, though it might not address all the issues one have prior to entering an organization. Also, many expecations are tacit and only emerge after one is in the organization for a while.

In-Role Socialization

Why do newcomers change their behavior in an organization?

Anxiety

Many individuals are moviated to reduce the unpleasant state of tension by learning their way around inthe new setting. But no studies actually measured anxiety or stress on the job.

Efficacy

Bandura has written how self-efficacy expectations are important (belief that one can master a situation). He stated that "expectations of personal efficacy determine whether coping behavior will be initiated, how much effort will be expended, and how long it will be sustained in the face of obstacles and aversive experiences" Bandura, 1977, p. 191

Newcomers with high efficacy will not be afraid to explore the new role and seek feedback. Newcomers with low efficacy beliefs may isolate themselves or use other defensive strategies that inhibit learning. But high-efficacy may try to revoluionize the organization rather than adapt themselves to it.

Allowing others to see successful action may help self-efficacy.

Choice

The "rational choice" effect may cause people who belief they personally made the choice to have high motivation to succeed.

Rewards/Power

Reward contingency has a big impact on socialization behavior. Van Maanen (1976) said that "the outcomes of the organizational socialization process are determined largely by the organizations ability to select and utilize methods which communicate to the participants -- in a clear and precise-manner -- what relevant role behaviors will lead to the available valued rewards" p. 74. Latane states that social influence is partly a function of strength and immediacy, and number.

Investments

Often newcomers "stick it out" with the belief that it will be better after the initial adjustment period. Investment in a career is correlated with commitment.

Personality

Self-esteem seems to affect modeling, with people having low self-esteem more likely to copy others. People with high self-esteem seem to rely on their own resources in an unfamiliar setting. One's orientation toward authority also has an effect on role acceptance and socialization. Other empirical studies haven't found much correlation between personality values and adjustment effectiveness. p. 128

Van Maanen (1976) says that initial compiance is a great motivator, but later identification becomes the more dominant motive.

Organizational/Structural Factors

Dimensions of the Socialization Setting

Van Maanen & Scheins work is well thought out but untested.

Evan (1963) investigated the effects of individual vs collective socialization in the context of adaptation in an engineering co-op program. Engineers who were placed in groups with more than one peer did have reduce anxiety and redued turnover. p. 129 Another possibility is increased contact with new peers reduces the chance of learning from more experienced people. Thus speed and adequacy of learning may be reduced for collective socialization modes. This may be one area that can be explored in the labortory.

There is no research on the other dimensions of Van Maanen & Schein's work.

Role Dimensions

Desirability of the role and free choice of role are also important. Some roles are valued by individuals and society differently. p. 131. Role clarity and level of performance demand also impact socialization. Changing to similar roles also speeds adjustment.

Schein (1978) thought that individuals will have a more difficult time when the new role

* requires master of new skills or behaviors vs refining new ones

* requires a great deal of emotional energy and concentration

* involves disinvestiture or disconfirmation of important parts of the self-identity

* considered by valued others as a critical test of ability to succeed

Agents

Louis, Posner &Powell (1983) found that among MBA's the frequent contact with peers and supervisor was the most helpful for their job, while formal training programs was the least helpful. Feldman and Brett (1983) found that getting help and seeking information were favored as the most favorable coping strategies for new employees.

Novice-Agent Relationships

Cogswell (1968) pointed out that agents often don't realize that they are socializing anybody. p.l33 If the agent knows that the newcomer role entails and the newcomer does not, socialization proceeds smoothly. If they both don't know it procedes less smoothly. The affective relationship becomes important as well.

Multiple Agents

The relative power of agents depends on tangible reward power, amount of contact, perceived legitimacy, explicitness of relationship, and compatability with necomer's desires. The necomer's behavior may be a resultant of various agents direction and power.

Selection of Agents

Sometimes newcomers can select their own agents. Often this is based on reward power. Sometimes it is similarity of role. Availability is important too.

Peers

Peers often hold influence because of their ability to give "insider information". They are present much of the time, and can monitor and reinforce newcomer behavior more frequently. There are usually more peers than superiors. How much they influence probably depends on how important the newcomer is in their own work.

Superior

The path-goal model suggests that if the situation is ambiguous to the subordinate, the leader should clarify. task requirements and task-performance to reward relationships. The leader should also try to remove roadblocks to performance and increase the satisfaction subordinates receive from performance. IF the task and contingencies are clear, the leader should refrain from redundant structuring behavior.

Berlew & Hall found that a challenging first job and a first superior with high expectations were associated with greater success and performance years later in one's career. p. 136 In a more recent study by Eden and Shani (1982), they directly moderated the superior's expectations of trainee's ability and found that variance in trainee performance was explained by 73% and 66% from these factors.

Conclusion

The study of socialization seems to be moving toward seeing the newcomer as an active problem solver and agent of his or her own socialization. (Van Maanen, 1983). Newcomers purposefully seek out people and learning settings which they judge to be of value in helping them to adjust (Feldman & Brett, 1983). Additional work on the selection of agents may be important. Research on how individual differences in both disposition and beliefs affect newcomer reactions to socialization pressures and actions in self-socialization is needed. p. 138.

Some areas do not need further research. Anticipatory socialization is well studied. Stages of socialization is done (except maybe by ethnographic means). More focus on behavior change during socialization may be helpful, as would analysis of individual and subgroup change patterns over time. p. 138